| Start | RPR Cycle | Resources | Practices | Results | Accessibility | Future |Paper |

Distance Learning Success Factors in the Resources-Processes-Results Cycle and the Web Accessibility Guidelines

 

Dr. Cathy Cavanaugh, Ph.D.

Assistant Professor

Department of Curriculum and Instruction

University of North Florida

4567 St. Johns Bluff Rd S

Jacksonville, Florida USA 32224

ccavanau@unf.edu

 

Dr. Terence Cavanaugh, Ph.D.

Visiting Assistant Professor

Department of Curriculum and Instruction

University of North Florida

4567 St. Johns Bluff Rd S

Jacksonville, Florida USA 32224

tcavanau@unf.edu

 

Abstract

Higher education in the U.S. is experiencing two important trends that influence distance education: growth in delivery of online courses, and growth in students with disabilities. Course designers can address the needs of disabled students using established quality guidelines and standards. The development and implementation of effective distance education happens in an iterative cycle. The three stages in the cycle are (1) procurement and preparation of the resources necessary to meet the distance education goals, (2) delivery of instruction using the best practices from education, business and research, and (3) analysis of the results of distance education to gauge achievement of the goals. Each stage of the Resources--Practices--Results (RPR) cycle continually revisits lessons learned in the other stages and builds upon the successes realized in the other stages. The success of a web-based distance education program in part relies on the program’s accessibility to all constituents. This paper explores the interconnect among the established success factors incorporated into the RPR cycle and two sets of web accessibility standards published by at national and international levels. The standards are the international World Wide Web Consortium’s Web Content Accessibility Guidelines, and the United States’ Section 508 Standards for web accessibility. Because of the differing foci of the groups producing the standards, there is variation in the degree to which the standards relate to the RPR success factors.

 

Quality in Accessible Distance Education

 

In the early years of the 2000 decade, higher education is experiencing shifts as a result of several trends. Two of the trends have direct implications for institutions and instructors offering distance learning courses. The first trend is the growth in online education. A survey of over 3500 institutions of higher education in 1999 found that 78 percent of four-year schools and 62 percent of two-year schools used distance learning (National Center for Education Statistics). A U.S. Department of Education report (2000a) stated that 1.6 million students took at least one course through a form of distance learning. A 2002 estimate was that 350,000 students in the U.S. take fully online distance learning courses, representing two percent of all students enrolled in postsecondary education (Gallagher). While two percent may not seem to indicate a trend, the growth rate in postsecondary online education was 40 percent annually in 2002, and the tuition generated by online courses was about $1.75 billion. These figures indicate a trend in the making. The second trend is the growth in college students with disabilities. A 2001 report, the latest biennial statistical profile on college freshman with disabilities, stated that about 6 percent of first-time full-time college freshman attending four-year institutions self-reported a disability, compared to less than three percent in 1978 when the report began tracking the data (Henderson 2001). The 1999 report said that nine percent of freshmen at two-year and four-year colleges reported disabilities (Henderson 1999). Again the numbers may seem small, but the growth rate is significant. Together these trends indicate that colleges and universities entering the online education arena must account for student disabilities when delivering online courses. For a student with a disability, quality in an online course has a different meaning than it does for a non-disabled student.

 

 

Percent of college undergraduates taking distance learning courses		Percent of distance learning courses delivered by each mode of delivery
Total	8.4	Live, interactive	Internet	Pre-recorded
		37.0	59.0	39.1
Disability status of students participating in distance learning
No disability reported	8.2	37.5	58.4	39.2
Disability reported	9.9	33.1	63.6	38.5

Table 1. Percentage of college undergraduates taking distance learning courses (1999-2000), with percentages concerning modes of delivery, and students with a disability taking distance learning.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1999–2000 National Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS: 2000). (US DOE, 2002)

 

In its December 2000 report to Congress, the Web-Based Education Commission made high quality online educational content one of its seven critical issues. In order for a student or institution to determine whether quality has been achieved, quality must be defined. Primarily, distance education programs must serve institutions in meeting their goals. A central goal of education is developing independent learners who can capably apply their knowledge to new situations. To ensure that distance education offerings meet this goal, designers must identify desired learning outcomes, instructional methods, and accessibility methods. Quality indicates that instruction is accessible, effective and appropriate. The definition of quality may include quantitative elements such as completion rates, student performance, and student evaluations of the learning experience. Qualitative dimensions may include ratings of teaching-learning events, materials, learning process, pace, activities, content, usability, accessibility, and options offered to students.  Performance in each measure of quality depends on the distance education experience being fully accessible to all users. Two groups have released widely accepted accessibility standards for web-based information as guides toward improving accessibility, the U. S government and the World Wide Web Consortium.

 

 

The Quality Distance Education Cycle

The process of developing and implementing effective distance education happens in an iterative cycle. Broadly considered, the three stages in the cycle are (1) procurement and preparation of the resources necessary to meet the distance education goals, (2) delivery of instruction using the best practices from education, business and research, and (3) analysis of the results of distance education to gauge achievement of the goals. Each stage of the Resources--Practices--Results (RPR) cycle, shown in Figure 1, continually revisits lessons learned in the other stages and builds upon the successes realized in the other stages (Cavanaugh 2002). Each stage requires participation of all stakeholders, including students, instructors, support and design professionals, administrators, and the community. The success factors included in each stage are based on decades of research and experience with learners from professions, higher education and K-12 education (Barker, 1999; Bruce, Fallon & Horton, 2000; Cavanaugh, 1999; Educational Development Associates, 1998; Fredericksen, E., Peltz, W. & Swan, K., 2000; Institute for Higher Education Policy, 2000; Mantyla, 1999).

 

This paper explores the match among the established success factors incorporated into the RPR cycle and the accessibility standards established by the US government and the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C).

Figure 1. Distance learning success factors

The Resources Phase of the RPR Cycle. The resources required to sustain an accessible quality distance education program exist to support students, faculty, and the program or institution toward achieving the goal of effective and appropriate learning. Responsive and flexible human resources, knowledge, skills, policies, procedures and technical infrastructure enable quality practices and contribute to quality results. Procurement, development and adaptation of resources are ongoing processes.

 

Success factors for the Resources phase:

• Institutional policy that values distance education
• Strategic plan for delivering distance education to students
• Stakeholder analysis to determine needs of graduates
• Financial commitment that gives the direction regarding program implementation
• Team support for distance educators and students
• Appropriate technology infrastructure
• Program standards to guide course design and delivery
• Program review to ensure that all components of the program meet standards and to ensure that the standards contribute to program goals
• Effective communication of policies and expectations to students
• Student services: information, advising, orientation, and security
• Information privacy
• Qualified, experienced staff and faculty
• Community involvement in the program’s goals, policies, and outcomes
• Information provided to faculty about teaching in the distance learning environment
• Instructor release time for course development
• Instructor training in distance education pedagogy and technology
• Course design and delivery assistance
• Well-designed and appropriate learning materials
• Student orientation and training
• Student access to learning resources and instructors
• Technical support for instructors and students
• Technology plan to communicate goals to all users

 

The Practices Phase of the RPR Cycle. With the right resources in place, the stage is set for dramatic distance learning performance. At this point the spotlight shifts from the institution to the instructor. Quality accessible distance teaching begins with the careful design of courses, materials and learning activities. Next, the instructional practices employed during instruction will aim at developing independent learners with the ability to transfer their learning to novel situations. Throughout the course, effective communication and community building are essential foundations for all events.

 

Success factors for the Practices phase:

• Focus on content and students
• Relevant and important skills and knowledge addressed in courses
• Structured information presented in motivating context
• Social strategies to promote student comfort, control, challenge
• Fast feedback from instructors to students
• Consistent and accessible design throughout each course
• Highly interactive activities for student engagement
• Authentic communication among students, instructors and experts
• Course activities designed to maximize student motivation
• Activities focused on high-level cognitive skills
• Development of information literacy
• Development of applied technical skills

 

The Results Phase of the RPR Cycle. The only way to know whether an accessible distance education program has achieved quality is to compare the program results to established quality benchmarks. Measures of quality are tied to institutional goals, and account for the specific context of the program. To maintain success, a distance education program evaluation must account for institutional and instructional factors as well as student factors. Evaluation of course and program results is a continual process that involves all stakeholders and requires a wide range of tools. Success is evaluated by through assessment of student learning, program review, and program accreditation.

 

Success factors for the Results phase:

• Student independence developed through opportunities for self-assessment
• Peer review of student work as a professional experience
• Creation of student portfolios to showcase accomplishments
• Varied assessments for an accurate view of student abilities
• Open-ended assignments to increase thinking skills and reduce cheating
• Secure online testing
• Ongoing course evaluation by students
• Evaluation of program by students and faculty
• Review of program outcomes and components by all stakeholders
• Program accreditation

 

Accessibility Guidelines and Laws

 

Educators are charged by law to make accommodations to the process of education to allow all the students access to the educational situation.  At the K-12 level, these accommodations usually take place as part of a student’s IEP (Individual Education Plan), and at the post secondary level an office of student services often handles the student’s needs.  Educators must adapt and make accommodations to educational material to make it work for the student, allowing full access to the materials. 

 

Currently in the U.S. there are two main initiatives in the structuring of accessibility guidelines for web-based materials, the United States government, which has established section 508 of the 1998 Rehabilitation Act, and the World Wide Web Consortium’s Web Accessibility Initiative.  Other countries have developed their own guidelines, including the United Kingdom’s Disability Discrimination Act and open.gov guidelines, and Australia’s Disability Rights policy. Other governments and agencies are in the process of developing guidelines or laws.

 

Agencies with an interest in accessible web-based communication such as distance education have published accessibility guidelines to guide institutions and instructors in designing quality courses and web sites. Guidelines and laws have been developed by several national and international bodies. Those developed by the US government and the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) will be reviewed here.

 

 

Table 2.  Web accessibility standards used in this analysis

 

In 1998, the U.S. Congress amended the Rehabilitation Act to require Federal agencies to make their electronic and information technology accessible to people with disabilities. Section 508 was enacted to eliminate barriers in information technology, to make available new opportunities for people with disabilities, and to encourage development of technologies that will help achieve these goals. The law applies to all Federal agencies when they develop, procure, maintain, or use electronic and information technology. Under Section 508, agencies must give disabled employees and members of the public access to information that is comparable to the access available to others. The part of the law regulating web-based information and applications pertains to online distance learning courses, not as legal requirements in most cases, but as considerate adaptations for disabled users. The sixteen web-based information paragraphs call for alternative means of accessing information, and most of them correspond directly to W3C accessibility guidelines. All sixteen paragraphs are consistent with the five quality distance education factors related to program standards, course design, and student access to learning materials.

The World Wide Web Consortium’s Web Accessibility Guidelines 1.0, dated 1999, describe how Web content should be made accessible to people with disabilities. While main goal of the guidelines is to promote accessibility, following them will also make Web content more available to all users. To promote the guidelines and web accessibility, the W3C allows web developers to place conformance rating logos on their web pages. The three levels of conformance indicate the degree to which the guidelines have been followed. Level A conformance applies to web pages following all of the W3C’s Priority 1 guidelines, Level AA means all Priority 1 and 2 guidelines have been followed, and Level AAA conformance is earned for web pages follwing all guidelines at Priorities 1, 2, and 3. The W3C has established 14 guidelines, each with prioritized checkpoints. The W3C guidelines and the Section 508 standards a revery closely aligned with each other. Each W3C guideline is pertinent to online course developers and all of the guidelines are consistent with the five quality distance education factors related to program standards, course design, and student access to learning materials.

The success factors of the RPR cycle include practices at the instruction, program, and instructor levels. Because of the specific focus of the groups producing accessibility guidelines, they apply to a limited portion of the RPR cycle. The accessibility guidelines, however, are very precise and offer an essential accompaniment to the success factors. Together, the guidelines and the success factors identified in the literature provide a comprehensive instructional resource for distance education developers. Developer and instructors are encouraged to continue to review the literature to add their own standards of practice to the guidelines provided by national and international agencies. Implemented in tandem, the RPR success factors and the accessibility guidelines provide a comprehensive set of design and implementation guidelines for distance learning.

 

Figure 2. Distance education development cycles

 

 

Conclusion

 

With the worldwide number of Internet users expected to reach 1 billion by 2005 (Computer Industry Almanac, 2002), and the increasingly frequent need for employees to update their knowledge and skills to adapt to the rapidly changing workplace, interest in distance education will continue to grow. In response, distance education offerings are growing, and competition for students will grow. Students online have access to any online course, and the tools of the web allow students to quickly compare courses. A strength of distance education is its potential to focus the learning process on the student, regardless of the student’s unique needs and abilities. Courses and programs that emphasize their focus on the student’s strengths and needs will succeed in attracting students. In order to build their reputations and retain students, courses and programs must reach quality goals. With increased need for new career skills and improvement in delivery technology, distance education students will demand full accessibility, and evidence of quality and authenticity in distance courses. It is imperative that distance education developers implement and review quality benchmarks regarding Resources-Practices-Results and web-based information accessibility guidelines in response to the needs of students, employers and the community. Educational institutions must continue to develop and maintain standards, and they must clearly communicate those standards to the public. When students benefit from an education program that meets their needs, the community benefits as well.

 

 

 

References

 

Barker, K. (1999). Quality guidelines for technology-assisted distance education. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education Office of Learning Technologies.

 

Bruce, B., Fallon, C., & Horton, W. (2000). Getting started with online learning. Macromedia, Inc. Online at http://www.macromedia.com/learning/online_learning_guide.pdf

 

Cavanaugh, C. (2001). The Effectiveness of Interactive Distance Education Technologies in K-12 Learning: A Meta-Analysis, International Jl. of Educational Telecommunications 7(1), 73-88.

 

Cavanaugh, C. (2002). Distance Education Quality: Success Factors for Resources, Practices and Results in The Design and Management of Effective Distance Learning Programs. Discenza, R., Howard, C. & Schenk, K., Eds. Hershey, PA: Idea Group Press.

 

Computer Industry Almanac, Inc. (2002). Internet Users Will Top 1 Billion in 2005.
Wireless Internet Users Will Reach 48% in 2005. Arlington Heights, IL: Author. Online at http://www.c-i-a.com

 

Educational Development Associates. (1998). What quality distance learning courses for an institution? Las Cruces, MN: Author.

 

Fredericksen, E., Peltz, W. & Swan, K. (2000). Student satisfaction and perceived learning with online courses: principles and examples from the SUNY learning network. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 4 (2).

 

Gallagher, S. (2002). Distance learning at the tipping point: critical success factors to growing fully online distance learning programs. Boston, MA: Eduventures, Inc.

 

Henderson, C. (1999). College freshman with disabilities: a biennial statistical profile. Washington, DC: American Council on Education.

 

Henderson, C. (2001). College freshman with disabilities: a biennial statistical profile. Washington, DC: American Council on Education.

 

Institute for Higher Education Policy. (2000). Quality on the line: benchmarks for success in internet-based distance education. Washington, DC: Author.

 

Mantyla, K. (1999). Interactive distance learning exercises that really work. Alexandria, VA: American Society for Training and Development.

 

National Center for Educational Statistics (NSES) and Phipps, R. A. (2002). Access To Postsecondary Education: What is the Role of Technology? Report Written for the National Postsecondary Education Cooperative (NPEC).  Retrieved from http://nces.ed.gov/npec/papers/PDF/WhatRoleTechnology.pdf

U.S. Congress. (1998). Section 508, 29 U.S.C. ‘ 794d. Washington, DC: author. Available online at http://www.section508.gov

 

U.S. Department of Education (US DOE) (2000a). Getting Ready Pays Off: A Report for National College Week. Retrieved from http://www.ed.gov/offices/OPE/News/collegeweek/collegeweekpdf.pdf

 

U.S. Department of Education (US DOE) (2000b). To assure the free appropriate public education of all children with disabilities.  Twenty second annual report to Congress on the implementation of IDEA. Washington, DC: author. Retrieved from: http://www.ed.gov/offices/OSERS/OSEP/Products/OSEP2000AnlRpt/index.html

 

World Wide Web Consortium. (1999). Web content accessibility guidelines. Available online at http://www.w3.org/TR/WAI-WEBCONTENT/

 

 

Appendix A

508 Standards: Section 1194.22 Web-based intranet and internet information and applications.

(a) A text equivalent for every non-text element shall be provided (e.g., via "alt", "longdesc", or in element content).

(b) Equivalent alternatives for any multimedia presentation shall be synchronized with the presentation.

(c) Web pages shall be designed so that all information conveyed with color is also available without color, for example from context or markup.

(d) Documents shall be organized so they are readable without requiring an associated style sheet.

(e) Redundant text links shall be provided for each active region of a server-side image map.

(f) Client-side image maps shall be provided instead of server-side image maps except where the regions cannot be defined with an available geometric shape.

(g) Row and column headers shall be identified for data tables.

(h) Markup shall be used to associate data cells and header cells for data tables that have two or more logical levels of row or column headers.

(i) Frames shall be titled with text that facilitates frame identification and navigation.

(j) Pages shall be designed to avoid causing the screen to flicker with a frequency greater than 2 Hz and lower than 55 Hz.

(k) A text-only page, with equivalent information or functionality, shall be provided to make a web site comply with the provisions of this part, when compliance cannot be accomplished in any other way. The content of the text-only page shall be updated whenever the primary page changes.

(l) When pages utilize scripting languages to display content, or to create interface elements, the information provided by the script shall be identified with functional text that can be read by assistive technology.

(m) When a web page requires that an applet, plug-in or other application be present on the client system to interpret page content, the page must provide a link to a plug-in or applet that complies with §1194.21(a) through (l).

(n) When electronic forms are designed to be completed on-line, the form shall allow people using assistive technology to access the information, field elements, and functionality required for completion and submission of the form, including all directions and cues.

(o) A method shall be provided that permits users to skip repetitive navigation links.

(p) When a timed response is required, the user shall be alerted and given sufficient time to indicate more time is required.

 

Appendix B

W3C Accessibility Guidelines

1. Provide equivalent alternatives to auditory and visual content. Provide content that, when presented to the user, conveys essentially the same function or purpose as auditory or visual content.

2. Don't rely on color alone. Ensure that text and graphics are understandable when viewed without color.

3. Use markup and style sheets and do so properly. Mark up documents with the proper structural elements. Control presentation with style sheets rather than with presentation elements and attributes.

4. Clarify natural language usage. Use markup that facilitates pronunciation or interpretation of abbreviated or foreign text.

5. Create tables that transform gracefully. Ensure that tables have necessary markup to be transformed by accessible browsers and other user agents.

6. Ensure that pages featuring new technologies transform gracefully. Ensure that pages are accessible even when newer technologies are not supported or are turned off.

7. Ensure user control of time-sensitive content changes. Ensure that moving, blinking, scrolling, or auto-updating objects or pages may be paused or stopped.

8. Ensure direct accessibility of embedded user interfaces. Ensure that the user interface follows principles of accessible design: device-independent access to functionality, keyboard operability, self-voicing, etc.

9. Design for device-independence. Use features that enable activation of page elements via a variety of input devices.

10. Use interim solutions. Use interim accessibility solutions so that assistive technologies and older browsers will operate correctly.

11. Use W3C technologies and guidelines.  Use W3C technologies (according to specification) and follow accessibility guidelines. Where it is not possible to use a W3C technology, or doing so results in material that does not transform gracefully, provide an alternative version of the content that is accessible.

12. Provide context and orientation information. Provide context and orientation information to help users understand complex pages or elements.

13. Provide clear navigation mechanisms. Provide clear and consistent navigation mechanisms -- orientation information, navigation bars, a site map, etc. -- to increase the likelihood that a person will find what they are looking for at a site.

14. Ensure that documents are clear and simple. Ensure that documents are clear and simple so they may be more easily understood.